Underlying assumptions of intelligence tests Essays

Underlying assumptions of intelligence tests Essays Underlying assumptions of intelligence tests Essay Underlying assumptions of intelligence tests Essay How can intelligence be tested? Critically evaluate the underlying assumptions of intelligence tests. Intelligence is a very controversial. It is seen as an obsession in daily life and focuses on certain types of intelligence. Francis Galton was the first person to design a mental test. Galton believed that an individuals mental ability could be determined through the deviation of their performance on a simple test to the mean. He believed that the greater a persons sensory perception the more intelligence they had. However, Galton never produced a theory about intelligence testing, but paved the way for other psychologists to produce theories and tests.Spearmans (1904) theory suggested that intelligence was an innate, inherited quality. He suggested that there were two main factors that determined a persons intelligence; these were general intelligence, needed to perform all tasks and specific intelligence, which is needed to perform specific tasks .i.e., most people can drink out of some sort of cup, this needs general intelligence, however, not all people can sing in tune, this is specific intelligence.Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon (Simon and Binet, 1905) produced the first form of modern intelligence testing in 1905. The test had a practical purpose and was used to identify children who may need extra help with their school work. Due to the purpose of the test, the exercises Binet and Simon asked the children to complete were very similar to tasks the children completed within schools, i.e. measures of vocabulary, comprehension of facts and relationships and mathematical and verbal reasoning.The Binet Simon test was later modified and extended by Lewis Terman and his associates at Stanford University where it was translated for use in the United States (Terman 1916, Terman and Merrill, 1937). The test became known as the Stanford-Binet test and is still being used referred to as Intelligence Quotient; (I.Q). the I.Q. score was calculated by comparing the childs chronological age, (which means their age is years and months), with their mental age (which refers to the childs ability to solve problems of certain levels.) i.e if a child could answer questions designed for 8 year olds, but not them designed for 9 year olds, the child would have a mental age of 8.The I.Q test that is now most commonly used is know n as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for children, or the WISC. The most frequently used test used by psychologists is the third revision of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales known as the WISC-III. David Wechsler originally developed the test, which was series of ten different problems that ranged from very easy to extremely difficult; these ten problems were also divided into two subgroups.The verbal scale that involved tasks measuring vocabulary, understanding of similarities between objects and general knowledge. The other subgroup was the performance scale, which involved non-verbal tasks such as arranging pictures in to orders, or copying patterns using coloured blocks. Many psychologists find that this definition of verbal and non-verbal tasks helpful as different between the two skills can identify particular kinds of learning difficulties, i.e. dyslexia.However, ever since the I.Q tests were introduced there have been criticisms about them. Before 1937, the mean score of wom en using the Stanford-Binet test was on average ten points lower than the average score for men. Although at first it was generally suggested that this was because women were not as intelligent as men, it was later suggested that the questions were more directed towards male dominated areas of questioning than women, for example relating questions in terms of cars, card games, mechanics, etc. which at the time was made oriented. Therefore, it was decided to eliminate this discrepancy by modifying the questions to ensure that both males and females would archive around the same average score.According to Heather, (1976) this makes the test less efficient because there may be a natural difference between the intelligence levels of men and women through out different points of history, however, by using the new these differences may not be picked up. For example if the I.Q scores were not created to produce approximately the same scores for both males and females we may be able to see why females are currently doing better academically than males.Therefore, this could limit the efficiency of I.Q testing through either historically suggesting that women were inferior to men through their lower I.Q. scores, or through influencing the tests to create equal results for both males and females. It is difficult to say whether the tests were gender bias or whether the psychologists behind the changes to the tests did this to provide unbiased results through positive discrimination towards women.Another criticism of the I.Q. tests that there is an average 10-15 point difference between the White European average and the Afro- Caribbean average, (Brody, (1992) Fagan Singer (1983) Peoples, Fagan Drotar, 1995); (Neisser et al 1996) Heather, (1976) suggests that this difference can be reduced through changing the questions to suit a more mixed ethnic group of participants. However, it was suggested that this would affect the tests Predictive Validity. By changing the tests to reduce the racial differences, but without changing the social inequalities within our society would only create a more ineffective test. In order to reduce the ethnic I.Q. score difference, society must first change their attitudes towards other cultures, especially within education/ training and jobs.How ever, Jensen, (1969) published an article called How much can we boost I.Q. and schooling achievement? within which he made a controversial suggestion that Genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average negro-white intelligence differences. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesisOther psychologists including Eysenck (1971) and Herrnstein (1971) agree with Jensn. Jensen suggests that 80% of the difference between blacks and whites is due to the blacks genetic inferiority and 20% due to environmental factors. However, Jensen does not have the biological evidence to back up his claim; he also used a bias sample to carry out his study that was a mainly white population.

Brief History of Microsoft essays

Brief History of Microsoft essays Bill Gates the founder of Microsoft, the once young and eager teenager was running a small business made-up of other teenagers. Now the richest man in the world controlling an operating system practically every IBM compatible computer in the world uses. Computers are not the only things that Microsoft desires. Now they wish to influence the Internet. With all the opportunities that it offers many companies race to develop software to get people and businesses on the Internet. Many dislike the power Microsoft has come to possess and might gain more of it, but is there anything anybody can do? IBM has taken on the leader of software with an innovative new operating system known as OS/2, but will they have a chance? Microsoft may be unstoppable with its foundation, influence and power but is that enough to practically own the computerized world as we know it? Usually, when we mention Microsoft in any form we must have the registered trademark symbol right next to the word. The name is a well-known word in virtually everyone's life. Although it is the super-empire it is today Microsoft was once a small software business ran by a young Bill Gates in a tiny office. Consisting of a few young adults, they were not progressing as much as they would like too. Their competitors had it a little worse working out of their not so tidy two-story house made up of a husband and wife. The massive change occurred when a couple of IBM representatives showed up at the door of the CP/M founders only to be turned away. This was very rare to happen, since IBM was so highly respected by programmers at the time. IBM is introduced to a young man named Bill Gates. He was mistaken for an office helper but later strikes a serious offer for Microsoft products. The one program that was unavailable at the time would be an operating system soon to be call ed QDOS; a raw form of the Disk Operating System we know today. When called upon by IBM ...

Accelerating Change Management at CEB Case Study

Accelerating Change Management at CEB - Case Study Example The successes and failures of the change acceleration process have also been discussed and recommendations of how to improve the process made. CEB is one of the most prominent companies in the world and this is mainly as a result of its providing consultant services to a wide range of among the most successful companies today (Florent-Treacy, Kets de Vries & del Amo, 2010). Its success has been made possible through its ability to cater for the needs of the different corporations that seek its services and this has included a wide range of issues ranging from administration to the provision of advice concerning what to invest in and how to go through the process. A result has been that there has developed a wide variety of teams within the company that have enabled it to provide the services that are necessary to satisfy its clientele. Not only has CEB managed to expand globally, but it has also brought a unique style of management and consultancy into the market that has been sought after by a significant number of companies in the globe. CEB’s success has been attributed to its evolutionary attitude and actions, w hich have made it indispensable in the provision of services to its clients; all of which are based in different countries and environments. That these companies are based in different countries means that CEB has to ensure that it studies the new environments and make them a priority in the development of strategies that its clients can use to attain success. Through its efforts on behalf of its clients, CEB has managed to develop a unique position in the global market where it is able to adapt to different environments and advise its clients accordingly. The ever-evolving attitude that it has developed has made possible its success because this company has undergone many changes since its founding and as a young company, it has

Narrative criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Narrative criticism - Essay Example es of narrative criticism have emerged; some people have claimed that narrative criticism is a fundamental tool in communication processes owing to the fact that it facilitates the understanding of texts and how they reflect on human life structures, thus creating a platform for information sharing and exchange (Pullman, 7). As a method of literary analysis, this approach has been a subject of negative and positive criticism. To begin with, some scholars have claimed that the application narrative criticism is majorly based on a dimension of literary analysis that allows readers to assess literary works in a holistic manner, by noting different characteristics and styles that are similar to other literary works, taking into consideration, the beginning, middle as well as the end (Powell, 3). On the other hand, some narrative critics have asserted that it is basically a method that does not focus on a holistic analysis of literary works, but rather focus on specific elements of literary works, which seem relevant to the story line or the main theme. Moreover, this group of critics has claimed the narrative criticism is a basic tool for literary analysis that engages its readers through understanding how the literary works relate with real life experiences (Byron, 13). This is usually achieved through various points of view passed by the narrators and relating them to the real life experiences of its readers. According to Allan Powell (1990), Narrative criticism can be considered a function of events. This is because in its application, a high sense of priority is given to the text from the ideas of ‘implied readers’ and ‘implied author’: The essence of implied author as well as implied reader are usually determined by signatures emerging from the text. Powell also asserts that narrative criticism is a function of events, basically due to the fact that it involves taking into consideration characters and settings of a literary analysis that forms its

Shaping Special Education Essay Example for Free

Shaping Special Education Essay The history of American special education has taken a long, ever-evolving journey to get to the place it is today. Marilyn Friend (2008) discusses how in the early twentieth century students were still not accepted into public schools. Students who had physical or mental disabilities were placed into separate classes, made up entirely of students with disabilities. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century students with a wide range of disabilities were enrolled in special education classes. Over the past century, various court cases have defined how special education has changed. In 1954, the Brown v. Board of Education, gave way to questions about whether or not separating special education students from the general education population was appropriate or not. Some people believed that taking students out of the classroom gave them a label for their disability and therefore was discriminatory towards students, rather than helpful in providing services they needed to make them successful. (Friend, 2008, p. 47) Not only did educators become advocators for children’s with disabilities, so did parents. The Mills v. Board of Education (1972) sparked the determination of providing special education services for students. In response to various lawsuits against the Board of Education legislation created mandates to ensure the rights for students with disabilities. Structure of Special Education Parents continued to push for the rights of children, as well as congress. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 were laws that provided funding to states to assist them in creating and improving programs and services for children with disabilities. The Education for All Handicapped children Act in 1974 was created to allow full educational opportunities for students with disabilities. In 1986, the federal special education law was changed to include services for infants and young children. (Friend, 2008, p. 49) In 1990, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was changed to Individual with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and more disabilities were added. The most recent change was in 2004 when provisions were added to help resolve disputes between parents, as well as the requirement for student instruction to be taught using evidence-based practices. Federal law forced educators to change their view of special education students and how to best serve their needs in the school environment. Also in 2004, President Bush and Congress wanted IDEA to align with No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 so that schools would be held accountable for making sure students with disabilities achieve high standards (Friend, 2008, p. 68). Jill Hockenbury (2000) pointed out that special education is a key part of the public education system but that there are still challenges in special education today. Critical changes that are needed in special education include constructing a defensible philosophy of education, providing effective and intensive instruction, and improving the quality of teacher training. These changes are still being worked on today. The needs of children today are demanding that teachers provide effective instruction, that’s meaningful and allows the teacher to reach all levels of development in one classroom. Trends and Issues Quality teacher training is also one of the biggest challenges facing special education and relates directly to a key topic heard a lot about in special education, which is inclusion. Inclusion centers on the belief that students with a disability should be allowed to be a part of the general education classroom. However, inclusion is difficult because of the requirement of the general education teacher. The general education teacher should be able to meet the needs of the students in his or her classroom, which can be difficult depending on the students needs. However, inclusion states that students should be in the classroom full time, receiving instruction the same as non-disabled peers, and there should be no need for pull-out. In some cases, members of a child’s IEP team may not agree on the appropriate environment for a student. With increased opportunities for teachers to have training with research-based methods and strategies, this area should be able to improve in the future. Researchers have stated that inclusion is beneficial to both students with disabilities, and those without disabilities. A study done investigating perceptions of learning of nearly 5,000 kindergarten students through 12th grade revealed that students with disabilities wanted to learn the same material, use the same books, and enjoy the same homework and grading practices as typical peers. (Friend, 2008, as cited in Klinger and Vaughn 1999) Other trends in special education include universal design for learning and differentiation. Universal design for learning (UDL) is the instructional approach that students with disabilities should have access to the curriculum. Along with UDL is the use of differentiated instruction (or differentiation) to explore the concepts of UDL further. Differentiation means that within one environment, students with multiple needs will have their needs met through various ways. UDL and differentiation should be utilized by general education teachers to meet the needs of their special education student. (Friend, 2008, p. 77) These trends are all key concepts in the world of special education. They all impact the way special education teachers should teach to meet the needs of all their students. Pat Beckman (2001) reiterated this fact stating that â€Å"improved student learning requires teachers, schools, and districts to give up unproductive traditions and beliefs, replacing them with validated practices and a full understanding of the intent of the law. † IDEA requires teachers to use â€Å"programs, interventions, strategies, and activities† that are researched based. (Friend, 2008, p. 63) As the needs of students increase, the resources provided need to increase, which is the responsibility of those providing the education. Special education has come very far since placing disabled students in their own separate classroom, but it still has a long way to go. There is much to be said about meeting the needs of special education students and reaching those administrators, parents, and educators who still do not have a full understanding of inclusion. References Beckman, Pat (2001), Access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities, Council for Exceptional Children, retrieved May 28, 2012 from http://www. cec. sped. org/AM/Template. cfm? Section=HomeTEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay. cfmCONTENTID=5519 Friend, M.(2008). Special education: Contemporary perspectives for school professionals. Boston, MA: Allyn Bacon. Hockenbury, J. C. , Kauffman, J. M. , Hallahan, D. P. (2000). What is right about special education. Exceptionality, 8(1), 3-11. Obiakor, F. E. (2011). Maximizing access, equity, and inclusion in general and special education. Journal Of The International Association Of Special Education, 12(1), 10-16. U. S. Department of Education (2007) Thirty Years of Progress in Educating Children With Disabilities Through IDEA, retrieved May 28, 2012 from http://www2. ed. gov/policy/speced/leg/idea/history30. html.

Toronto Blue Jays :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Toronto Blue Jayss case study The Toronto Blue Jays baseball team was founded in the 1970s and experienced support from the fans during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1992 and 1993, the Jays won back-to-back World Series, yet in 1994, the team faced setbacks. The team had a losing streak, there was a major league baseball strike, and no World Series was played. At the same time, gambling came to Toronto, and the team had to compete for the fan's time. Also, players' salaries skyrocketed at a time when the Canadian dollar fell in value. How could the Toronto Blue Jays adjust ticket prices to improve financial performance and increase fan attendance? Situation Analysis The opening pitch of the 1999 marks the start of the Toronto Blue Jays twenty third seasons in the American League. In 1998, the Jays brought in their first winning season since 1993. The Jays plays in the worlds most advanced retractable-roof stadium. It is luxuriously called the Sky Dome. With a winning record like this and a state of the art stadium, the Jays feel their tickets are a great value because of the satisfaction fans can expect to receive from the ball game. Recommendation  · Price is that which is given up in an exchange to acquire a good or service. Price is typically the money exchanged for the good or service. Blue Jays pricing structure is based on the perceived value of the game, the entertainment, the love of baseball, and the action, not just the money.  · Inelastic demand means that an increase or decrease in price will not significantly affect demand for the product. In spite of the rising prices for the Blue Jays tickets, fans were expected to turn out in large numbers. This inelastic demand for the tickets can be attributed in large part of the fact that their teams plays so well in 1998, and another factor is that the Blue Jays fan could never stay away from their team. Another inelastic demand for the Blue Jays tickets is that there is no other locally substitute team.  · Blue Jays pricing strategies are not just a financial necessity, they are also a promotional tool used to increase fan attendance. How? At all Saturday home game and nonholiday games, senior citizens and young people up to fourteen years old can purchase tickets except for the most expensive ones.

Internet neutrality Essay

Internet neutrality enjoys a lot of support from consumers, technology companies and online companies. It is also supported by the main internet application organizations. This is mainly because they feel that the users of the internet should be in full unrestricted access to the internet applications and that they should have unregulated choice of the content they wish to view from the internet. The internet has applied the principle of neutrality ever since it was invented. An equal opportunity to access the internet is a basic concept that should be applied at all times, and thus no single user should be denied the right to access the internet. It would be not in order if the broad band carriers were allowed to use their power in the market to discriminate against the less powerful up coming carriers. The same way the telephone service providers are not allowed to dictate to the consumers whom they should call or even what to say in a telephone conversation, the same should apply to the broadband carriers, and thus they should not be permitted to misuse their power in the market to control online activities (Cerf, Para 7). Data would be controlled if internet neutrality is not allowed to continue, thus a legal mandate should be put in place to ensure that all the cable companies allow the providers of internet services unlimited access to the cable lines. Internet neutrality should be denied the right to screen, filter or interrupt the internet content unless permitted to do so by a court order. Internet neutrality should also ensure that there are laws governing digital freedoms and rights, thus the internet technology should remain open and free to all the internet users and this would enhance democratic communication (Zittrain, pp 78). Charging each and every website regardless of its market share would effectively hinder innovation and competition especially to the new small entrants into the market and thus more developments in technology would be blocked. By permitting preferential treatment of traffic in the internet, the newer and less competitive online companies would be highly disadvantaged and slow innovation would be realized in online services. In fact, most of the current major internet providers started as their operations in small garages with little capital and very great ideas, thus without internet neutrality such great ideas and innovations would never have been realized. If the internet neutrality is not maintained the internet would more or less appear like a television cable. It would be dominated by only a few companies who would be responsible of controlling the distribution and access of internet content. This would impact very negatively to some major industries and they would be faced with increased costs in order to acquire secure and fast internet facilities (Nuechterlein, & Weiser, pp 120) Conclusion The internet neutrality should be protected as it minimizes its control by the owners, it increases healthy competition and also gives others a chance to come up with innovative ideas which ushers in new technology every now and then and thus the internet remains relevant to the modern society. The neutrality of the network is very important in ensuring that a competitive and free market exists for the internet content. Work cited: Cerf, Vinton; Internet neutrality law needed (2006): Retrieved on 9th May from, http://www. infoworld. com/d/networking/internet-neutrality-law-needed-vi nton-cerf-says-577. Nuechterlein, Jonathan E. & Weiser, Philip J. ; Digital crossroads: American telecommunications policy in the internet age (2005): MIT Press, ISBN 0262140918. Zittrain, Jonathan; The future of the Internet and how to stop it (2008): Yale University Press, ISBN 0300124872.